The concept of entrepreneurship Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

The concept of entrepreneurship - Essay Example The intention of this study is the concept of entrepreneurship as the process of searching the environment to identify business opportunities for improvement, to mobilise resources and implement actions to maximise these opportunities. Thus, the kind of business venture normally involves an element of risk for which a profit reward is usually sought. Entrepreneurship also encompasses aspects such as the introduction of new goods or improving the new ones, developing the new methods of production, opening new markets as well as creating new forms of business organisation. As such, it can be observed that this is not an easy feat to achieve given that there are certain characteristics and traits necessary to start, manage and develop an entrepreneurial enterprise. Some of these traits required for staring up business are discussed below. The entrepreneur is always looking for business opportunities because he has the courage to take the risk to start a business. Whilst other people wou ld like to believe that entrepreneurs are born with special characteristics, it would be more accurate to say that entrepreneurship is learnt behaviour. The longer one continues to scout for business opportunities the more one notices profitable business opportunities. Thus, a prospective entrepreneur must always analyse himself and determine weak and strong points that characterise his personality. It can be observed that entrepreneurs possess particular characteristics that set them apart from people are not intent on starting an enterprise of their own. (Burke, 2007). Each entrepreneur has got a unique combination of characteristics and traits at his disposal for achieving success. 2.1.1 Philosophy of life The entrepreneur often tries things where the majority of people will back off (Gundill, 2006). Entrepreneurs are self starting and they are always looking for opportunities to which others have not even dreamed of and one notable aspect about these people is that they are ente rprising and they approach all things positively. Through innovation and creativity, an entrepreneur is able to identify an opportunity in the market and looks at both the positive as well as negative aspects that are related to that opportunity. The key success factor of the entrepreneurs in this particular case is that they always look at positive aspects of a given situation then look at the challenges later. This enables them to be better positioned to take the risk and approach the situation with caution fully knowing the measures that can be implemented in order to overcome the challenges or any other negative aspect that can impact on the business venture. It can be observed that every big business starts off as a small business and a good example can be drawn from the cases of McDonald’s hamburger, Apple computer as well as Ford car (Steinhoff & Burgess 1993:4). McDonald’

Europe in the Renaissance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words - 1

Europe in the Renaissance - Essay Example A major theme of Renaissance in England was a transition from purely religious ways of life (even in architecture and art) to a more secular mode of living, which included a shift from the way people idealised various things and concepts to a different outlook. The Church was no longer being considered a source of instruction in political, religious, social and individual matters. Rather, dissolution of power was taking place while the Church remained a religious identity while the power to deal with matters of law and government were vested with the (oft secular) political government. Hence, while there was a less opportunity to progress and open up to different varied disciplines while the Church was in power, people could focus on the development of culture and art during and after the Renaissance period. This is the reason why much emphasis is paid and research effort given to the cultural and art development during this period and there is much less focus on the political change . There was also an element of foreign ideas’ mixture into the concepts and ideas that were gaining popularity in England which eventually gave rise to a whole Renaissance theme containing a blend of traditional and modern ideas (The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia). â€Å"I call it our English Renaissance as it is certainly a type of new beginning of the character of man, like the great Italian Renaissance of the 1500s, in its wish for a more affable and comely approach of life, its obsession for physical beauty, its elite notice to shape, its seeking for new subjects for poetry, new intellectual, new forms of art, and imaginative enjoyments: and I call it our romantic association since it is our most current appearance of beauty. We describe it as a mere restoration of Greek modes of thinking, and again as a mere recovery of mediaeval feeling. Rather I would say that to these forms of the human spirit it has added anything of artistic value the complexity and density

Beliefs of the Republication Party, USA

Beliefs of the Republication Party, USA Caleb Dawson The Republican Platform Ever since a small group of anti-slavery activists met in 1854, the Republican Party has been a strong influence in American government and politics. In 1861, Abraham Lincoln firmly set the Republican Party as one of the two major political parties, when he became their first President and then won the Civil War. Then in the 1980s, Ronald Reagan, widely famed for his conservatism, highlighted the Republican Party’s key principles of freedom, equal opportunity, and God-given rights. Today, Republicans seek to reinstall America’s legacy of freedom and conservatism in the hearts of all Americans with their domestic, economic, and foreign policies. Republicans aim to protect individual freedoms, restore power and influence to communities, and encourage self-sustainability both locally and nationally through their domestic policy. First, the Republican Party holds a very strong view on the heavily debated topic of education. When the public education system first started, Republicans fought against the radical idea. They wanted individual communities to be able to instill their own beliefs into their people. As a result, current Republicans support private schools and home-schooling, which both return the power of teaching closer to the family level (â€Å"Republican Party (United States),† 2014). Recently, the Supreme Court ruled that prayer is illegal in the school. Feeling that this infringes our religious rights, Republicans strongly promote returning prayer to the school (â€Å"Republican Party on Education,† 2013). Another current issue is that of higher education. With the cost of college quickly rising, stu dent debt is soaring to new heights. In fact, the national student debt has now exceeded the national credit card debt (â€Å"Student Debt,† 2014). To help solve this problem, Republicans seek to stop all federal loans for college and help promote private loans, making long term debt less likely. Another problem is that, more than half of all recent graduates find themselves either working in areas outside their field of study or unemployed. As a result, Republicans say that more students should be encouraged to attend community colleges and technical institutions to get more practical training (â€Å"Republican Party on Education,† 2013). Also hitting the headlines, the energy crisis brings the Republican’s domestic views to light. Specifically about production methods, Republicans support â€Å"increased Federal investment into the development of clean alternative fuels, increased nuclear power, as well as fuels such as ethanol, as a way of helping the U.S. achieve energy independence, as opposed to supporting less use of carbon dioxide-producing methods of generating energy† (â€Å"Republican Party (United States),† 2014). With coal accounting for 37% of energy produced in the United States, they support improving coal plants and continuing to make them more environmentally-friendly. Also, nuclear energy should be promoted as a great energy source for America. Renewable, green energy sources should be thoroughly researched and promoted, but not as the primary source of energy. When it comes to resources, the Republican Party’s primary goal is for America to achieve self-sustainability. By legalizing and promoting the drilling for oil in many places, such as Alaska, Republicans hope to create many jobs and expand America’s energy resources. However, because of burdensome government regulations, the oil and natural gas industries have been greatly stifled. But by lightening these regulations, Republicans hope to get the American economy moving once again (â€Å"Energy – The All-American Plan,† 2014). A rapidly growing problem, the executive bureaucracy, is the subject of much discussion among Republicans. Although most Republicans believe that the bureaucracy as a whole is violating many American rights, many target regulatory agencies as the main problem. Because regulation has become a punitive threat instead of a beneficial guide, Republicans want new major regulations to have to pass congressional approval before they are applied. Another way through which the Republican Party seeks to reduce the power of the bureaucracy is by removing many of the regulations on businesses. Saying that current regulations are essentially a stealth tax on Americans, Republicans want to remove the regulations that are counter effective and only implement ones that are cost-effective (â€Å"2012 Republican Platform,† 2013). After removing many powers from the federal bureaucracy, Republicans hope to restore those powers back to the state and local levels. For they believe that the level c losest to the area dealt with should be the one to receive the governing authority on it (â€Å"Jefferson Perspective: Bureaucracies,† 1996). The Republican stance on gun control rights is very conservative and protective. Republicans think that the right to own a gun is part of the fundamental right of self-defense; therefore, it should not be infringed upon by the government. Also, Republicans believe ammunition should also be able to be obtained and stored freely without registration. Furthermore, they want to stop lawsuits targeted at gun manufacturers as an attempt to deprive Americans of the rights given to them by the 2nd Amendment. They say that when a tragic event occurs involving a gun, the gun is not the thing that should be regulated. The criminal should be punished, not the rest of the nation. Just like if a person killed someone with a spoon, spoons should not be banned across the nation (â€Å"Republican Party on Gun Control,† 2013R). Showing its Christian heritage, the Republican Party has widely made known its pro-life stance. Their main goal is to make abortion banned except for in cases of incest or rape. Republicans support the human life amendment, which would ban abortion. They support adoption and abstinence instead of adoption clinic referrals (â€Å"Republican Party on the Issues,† 2013). Most Republicans believe that abortion is simply a moral issue. While believing in the Christian principle that every human has a right to life, Republicans claim that abortion is simply murder. Furthermore, they state that the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution never state that an unborn baby does not have the Creator-endowed right to life (â€Å"The Republican Party is the Pro-Life Party,† 2001). Seeking to restore both freedoms and productivity to America, the Republican Party holds strongly to their economic policy. One of the cornerstones of the American success is its free-market economy, so Republicans hold strong opinions on it, encouraging economic prosperity through free markets and individual achievement (â€Å"Republican Party (United States),† 2014). â€Å"Republicans believe in the importance of sensible business regulations that promote confidence in our economy among consumers, entrepreneurs and businesses alike. However, they oppose interventionist policies that put the federal government in control of industry and allow it to pick winners and losers in the marketplace† (â€Å"2012 Republican Platform,† 2013). When it comes to income tax, Republicans claim it is harmful, for they say it punishes people that save and has grave implications for seniors living on fixed incomes (â€Å"Republican Party on Budget and Economy,†2013). They o ppose a graduated income tax, because it targets those that create jobs and wealth, stifling our free market economy. Supporting the worker, the GOP believes that workers should have the right to decide whether to join a union or not (â€Å"Republican Party (United States),† 2014). While welfare can be an honorable thing, Republicans do not want it to be abused. While most Republicans agree that a welfare system should be implemented to assist the poor, they prefer the government leave welfare in the hands of the individual and local level. As a result, religious organizations and other charities would become the target for welfare spending. Unfortunately, however, the welfare system is often abused by individuals. So Republicans seek to crack down on these incidents by tightening restrictions on welfare application and benefits (â€Å"Republican Party (United States),† 2014). Because of poor management many people now use welfare as a means of living. Republicans want welfare only to help people, not to support them (â€Å"Republican Party on Budget and Economy,† 2013). Overall, Republicans are opposed to government-run healthcare. Although many Republican politicians are in favor of Medicare and Medicaid, all are against a government health care program (â€Å"Republican Party (United States),† 2014). â€Å"We oppose government-run health care, which won’t protect the physician-patient relationship, won’t promote competition, and won’t promote health care quality and choice† (â€Å"2012 Republican Platform,† 2013). Republicans also state that government healthcare is used as a method to gain governmental power. For example, many Republicans believe that Obamacare was never really about health, but about government power. Through it, Obama would have taken control of over one-sixth of the economy. Also, if it is fully implemented, Republicans predict that it would itself collapse, demonstrating the inefficiency and uselessness of government healthcare (â€Å"Republican Party on Health Care,† 2013). When it comes to their foreign policy, the Republican Party holds a very proactive stance. In general, most Republicans believe that peace is best acquired though having a strong military. For example, the current Obama Administration wants to cut the members of the military by about 100,000, but Republicans seek to raise the number by that much! (â€Å"Republicans seek to add more in defense spending,† 2014). Further, Republicans acknowledge that America is in a national security crisis. Many people do not realize that China and North Korea are building up long-distance weapons to fire on us; therefore, Republicans say a strong military is key to our safety. They do not however believe America should go policing everybody; instead America should regulate the world just enough to keep us safe (â€Å"John Bolton at CPAC,† 2014). The Republicans seek to completely curb terrorism. Republicans are almost always in agreement with sending American troops abroad to fight terrorist groups. However, when it comes to our homeland, Republicans are split. Some say the government should observe private phone calls and emails in an effort to tighten national security. Others say that this is unconstitutional and that it violates Americans’ right to privacy (â€Å"Differing Views on Terrorism,† 2006). Another point brought up by Republicans is that terrorists will be fighting us no matter where the location is, so it is best to keep to keep a presence in other parts of the world in order to keep the fighting overseas. And moreover, since terrorists do not negotiate and keep fighting to the end, we must annihilate them for any hope of peace (â€Å"Republican Party on War and Peace,† 2013). Republicans believe that America should have the strongest and most modernized nuclear stockpile in the world in an effort to deter any attacks. The GOP thinks that the only way to stop a nuclear war is if all nations reduce or eliminate their nuclear stockpiles. They also know that if America takes the front of this movement, America must keep enough nuclear weapons to deter any other nation. They are worried because the Obama Administration has abandoned America’s nuclear force. This puts America in a vulnerable spot compared to the rest of the world. Also, by abandoning our missile bases in Poland and the Czech Republic, the current administration is undermining America’s missile defense. With nations developing nuclear missiles that can reach the U.S., Republicans state that it is foolish to undermine our own missile shield (â€Å"What Does Your†¦,† 2012). Through their conservative platform, Republicans seek restore liberty and prosperity to America. Founded on Christian morals and principles, the GOP seeks to use its conservative stance to draw American’s back from the invading concept of social liberalism. As the economy of America is rapidly degrading, the Republican Party is trying to reform the government to bring back America’s prosperity. And by having a strong military presence in the world, Republicans hope to make the world a safer place for our nation. As expressed by the GOP themselves, â€Å"The Party’s core principles of freedom and equal opportunity are as relevant today as at our founding, and they are the roadmap for American renewal in a new and interconnected world† (â€Å"Our History,† 2013). Bibliography 2012 Republican National Convention. â€Å"2012 Republican Platform.† 2013. http://www.gop.com/2012-republican-platform_home/ (accessed Feb. 25, 2014). Breitbart. â€Å"John Bolton at CPAC: Replace Obamas Drift, Decline, and Defeatism with Reaganite Peace Through Strength.† 6 March 2014. http://www.breitbart.com/Big-Government/2014/03/06/John-Bolton-at-CPAC-Replace-Obama-s-Drift-Decline-and-Defeatism-with-Reaganite-Peace-Through-Strength (accessed Mar. 28,2014). Dan Balz and Claudia Deane. â€Å"Differing Views on Terrorism.† 2006. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/01/10/AR2006011001192.html (accessed Mar. 26, 2014). Eyler Robert Coates, Sr. â€Å"Jefferson Perspective: Bureaucracies.† 1996. http://eyler.freeservers.com/JeffPers/jefpco34.htm (accessed Mar. 28, 2014). GOP.gov. â€Å"Energy – The All-American Plan.† http://www.gop.gov/energy/ (accessed Mar. 21, 2014). On The Issues. â€Å"Republican Party on Budget and Economy.† 11 October 2013. http://www.ontheissues.org/Celeb/Republican_Party_Budget_+_Economy.htm (accessed Mar. 23, 2014). On The Issues. â€Å"Republican Party on Education.† 11 October 2013. http://www.ontheissues.org/Celeb/Republican_Party_Education.htm (accessed Mar. 19, 2014). On The Issues. â€Å"Republican Party on Government Reform.† 11 October 2013. http://www.ontheissues.org/celeb/Republican_Party_Government_Reform.htm (accessed Mar. 23, 2014). On The Issues. â€Å"Republican Party on Gun Control.† 11 October 2013. http://www.ontheissues.org/Celeb/Republican_Party_Gun_Control.htm (accessed Mar. 24,2014). On The Issues. â€Å"Republican Party on Health Care.† 11 October 2013. http://www.ontheissues.org/celeb/Republican_Party_Health_Care.htm (accessed Mar. 23,2014). On The Issues. â€Å"Republican Party on the Issues.† 2013. http://www.ontheissues.org/Republican_Party.htm (accessed Mar. 19, 2014). On The Issues. â€Å"Republican Party on War and Peace.† 11 October 2013. http://www.ontheissues.org/celeb/Republican_Party_War_+_Peace.htm (accessed Mar. 26, 2014). On The Issues. â€Å"Republican Party on Welfare and Poverty.† 11 October 2013. http://www.ontheissues.org/celeb/Republican_Party_Welfare_+_Poverty.htm (accessed Mar. 23, 2014). Republican National Convention. â€Å"Our History.† 2013. http://www.gop.com/our-party/our-history/ (accessed Apr. 11, 2014). RNC for Life. â€Å"The Republican Party is the Pro-Life Party.† 2001. http://www.rnclife.org/brochure/rprolife.html (accessed Mar. 21, 2014). Waging Peace Today. â€Å"What Does Your Political Party Say About Nuclear Weapons.† 12 September 2012. http://wagingpeacetoday.blogspot.com/2012/09/what-does-your-political-party-say.html (accessed Mar. 26, 2014). Walter Pincus. â€Å"Republicans seek to add more in defense spending.† 2014. http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/republicans-seek-to-add-more-in-defense-spending/2012/05/07/gIQAKiq48T_story.html (accessed Mar. 28, 2014). Wikipedia. â€Å"Republican Party (United States).† 24 February 2014. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States) (accessed Feb. 25, 2014). Wikipedia. â€Å"Student Debt.† 2014. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Student_debt (accessed Apr. 3, 2014).

Japanese New Year Essay -- Japan History Holidays Essays

Japanese New Year Introduction: In Japan one of the most celebrated festivals is New Years. The Japanese New Year, or Oshogatsu (‚ ¨Ã‚ ³Ã…’Å ½), is given more preparation than any other festival. There are many traditions and activities that happen at this time. Oshogatsu is a time to visit temples, forget the troubles of the past year, and wish for good fortune in the new. Many festivals around this time also reflect the values and ideals of New Years. History: During the time of the Empress Suiko (593-628), Japan was influenced greatly by the religion and beliefs of China. In A.D. 604 Japan officially adopted the Chinese calendar. gThe new calendar was a lunar- solar one that has its months based on the lunar cycle. Casal writes gThe month begins when the sun enters the sign of the Fishes: the first day of the year, therefore falls on a day between January 20th and February 19th, and this is much nearer to spring (2). This system was in effect until the introduction of the Gregorian calendar in 1872. This is important because the seasons fall in line better with the lunar calendar than the modern one. In rural areas, many farmers still apply the Chinese calendar to their trade. Japanese people believed that the New Year started when the plants began to sprout life again, a new beginning. This happens throughout most of Japan in mid Jan. in line with the lunar calendar. In todayfs society Oshogatsu always falls on the same day (Jan. 1st), there are other festivals, which fall into the lunar calendar that have the same values of purification and new beginnings. Another influence from China at this time was Buddhism, which had been praised by Prince Shotoku Taishi, and became the official religion in 621.... ...nt from, and happier than, we do on ordinary days.h(Casal 1) Bibliography Festivals.com. 28 Nov. 2003 Seattle, Washington, http://www.festivals.com/search/display_event.aspx?eid=mYJmQbyD5jQ%3d&srid=3&page=1&bycountry=1&RID=jp&PROV= http://www.festivals.com/search/display_event.aspx?eid=lvluK1qWwM8%3d&srid=7&page=1&bycountry=1&RID=jp&PROV= (7) Japan Cultural Network Homepage. 28 Nov. 2003 http://www.hevanet.com/miyumi/december.htm http://www.hevanet.com/miyumi/january.htm http://www.hevanet.com/miyumi/february.htm Japan-Guide.com 2 Dec. 2003 Casal, U. A. The Five Sacred Festivals of Ancient Japan. Ruttland, Vermont &Tokyo Japan: Charles E. Tuttle Company Inc. 1967 Bauer, Helen & Carlquist, Sherwin. Japanese Festivals Doubleday & Company Inc. Garden City, New York, 1965 gHadaka Mairih Akita sakigake (Newspaper) 20 Jan. 2003 (1, 26)

Harper Lee Research Paper

â€Å"†¦ climb into his skin and walk around in it. † Atticus teaches Scout and important life lesson. The novel To Kill and Mockingbird describes Lee’s childhood growing up in a small country town called Maycomb. She grew up in a small family consisting of her dad, Atticus and her older brother, Jem. The novel describes her childhood adventures and journeys as she grows and matures. Harper Lee’s To Kill a Mockingbird discusses biographical and historical events by using characterization and setting. â€Å"Harper Lee was born in Monroevill, Alabama in 1926† (Hacht). Lee was born to Frances Finch, who died when Lee was young, and was the daughter of a lawyer in Maycomb County, Amasa Coleman†(Moss, Wilson 390), who they referred to as â€Å"Atticus†. Lee was a â€Å"Tom-boy† growing up because she was the only girl in the family. â€Å"Truman Capote, famous writer, was a close childhood friend of Lee and is thought to have served as the model for Dill in the novel† (Hacht). â€Å"After graduating from the public schools of Monroeville, Lee attended a small college in nearby Montgomery before attending the University of Alabama† (Telgan 285), and one year at Oxford University in England (Stabler 663) essay writer premium 3d. She studied law after graduating essay writer program, but withdrew one semester before completing her law degree† (Hacht). She withdrew for her law degree to pursue her writing career (Hacht). â€Å"She helped author Truman Capote research information for the book, In Cold Blood† (Stabler 663). â€Å"She wrote essays and short stories in her spare time. † Her agent called to tell her about the one of her short stories being extended into a novel (Telgan 287). The book was To Kill and Mockingbird which was her only book, was immediately popular and critical success, winning a Pulitzer Prize in 1961 (Hacht).The practice of slavery made whites prejudice agains t blacks, and the whites did not get along well with the blacks, which was a cause for a major change. Even though slavery ended they where still treated unfairly. â€Å"Although Lee sets her novel in the south of the 1930s, conditions were little improved by the early 1960s in America† (Telgan 295). Despite the end of slavery African Americans were still denied many of their basic rights. Blacks were demeaned by society. They segregated the public rest rooms and drinking fountains and forced blacks to the back of buses. Injustice was challenged was challenged by a woman named Rosa Parks.She refused to give up her seat to a white man. Being lead by Martin Luther King Jr. , civil right leaders lead a boycott against the bus system in Montgomery, Alabama on December 5, 1995 (Telgan 295-296). â€Å"Maycomb was an old town, but it was a tired old town when I first knew it. In rainy weather the streets turned to red slop, grass grew on the sidewalk, and the courthouse sagged in t he square† (Lee 5) Lee describes the setting o Maycomb for the reader to visualize the setting of the story. â€Å"†¦ Mrs. Dubose was the meanest old lady who ever lived† (Lee 35). Harper Lee uses characterization to describe the meanness in Mrs.Dubose, and why Jem and Scout hate to walk by her house. Harper Lee teaches life lessons in To Kill a Mockingbird by describing her childhood. She discusses biographical and historical events by using characterization and setting to help the readers see what she wrote. Hacht, Anne M. â€Å"To Kill an Mockingbird. † Literary Themes for Students: Race and Predjudice. Vol. 2 Detroit: Gale, 2006. 470-483. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale. Hardin Valley Academy. 23Oct. 2009http://go. galegroup. com/ps/start. do? p=GVRL&u=tel_k_hardinhs Moss, Joyce & Wilson, George â€Å"To Kill a Mockingbird. † Literature and Its Times. Profiles of 300 Notable Literary Works and the Historical Events That Influenced Them. Vol. 3: Growth of Empires to the Great Depression (1890-1930s) Detroit: Gale, 1997. 390-396. Gale Virtual Reference Liberary. Gale. HARDIN VALLEY ACADEMY. 26 Oct. 2009 http://go. galegroup. com/ps/start. do? p=GVRL&u=tel _K_hardinhs Stabler, Scott â€Å"To Kill a Mockingbird. † St. James Encyclopedia of Popular Culture Ed. Sara Pendergast and Tom Pendergast. Vol. 4. Detroit: St. James Press, 2000. 663-664. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale HARDIN VALLEY ACADEMY. 26 Oct. 2009 http://go. galegroup. com/ps/start. do? p=GVRL&u

The Heliocentric Science

Samir Okasha showed in his book, â€Å"Philosophy of Science: A very short introduction†, what makes science a distinct body of knowledge which make use of â€Å"observations, experiments and theory-constructions† as can be reflected on the works of `De Revolutionibus` by Nicholaus Copernicus and `Letter to The Grand Duchess, Christina` by Gallileo. The works had been both controversial since they are against the normal view during their time. Okasha’s book is useful in understanding the concept of scientific revolutions, or the changes in scientific paradigm which can be reflected in the works of Galileo and Copernicus. This essay would like to show how Okasha’s work can help in understanding the works of great scientists, specifically Copernicus and Gallileo. The essay would focus on the theme of scientific revolution. The essay would start with an introduction of science prior to the time of Copernicus and Galileo. The prevailing science and the role of religion would be highlighted to emphasize the difference between the roles of these two. The highlights of Copernicus’ work would be discussed. It will be followed by the defense made by Galileo against his retractors. Finally, the concept of scientific revolution would be defined and the works of Copernicus and Galileo would be analyzed based on this context. Okasha explained that prior to the development of modern science that started during the 1500, science had largely been Aristotelian. This means that most of the things that are regarded as scientific are based upon the findings and writing of Aristotle. Aristotle was a Greek philosopher who studied several areas of knowledge including astronomy, physics, chemistry and biology. Particularly, he put forward that the earth is spherical and finite. Aristotle believed that the movement of the planets is in circular motion. Aristotle also supports the notion that earthly bodies are composed of â€Å"four elements: earth, water, air and fire†. Another important figure in pre-Copernican science was Ptolemy. The well-known geocentric model was set upon by this man before 170 AD. According to his model, the Earth is the center of the Solar System. Everything revolves around Earth. He used the concept of epicycles and equant to describe the movement of the planets and other heavenly bodies. Both Aristotle and Ptolemy hold that the Earth is stationary or does not move. They believe that the heavens –the sun, the planets and the stars are the ones that move. Both also believe that the stars are fixed in the heavens. They imagined that there are shells that hold the heavenly bodies. Science, especially astronomy, had been based on these two thinkers for over 1000 years. Thus, knowledge had been highly dominated and is profoundly based on their ideas. Being able to survive from generations after generations and being unchallenged for more than 1000 years, it is only apparent that these sciences are considered as normal and at some point natural. More particularly, Christianity as a religion gained authority which controlled or dictate knowledge based on their interpretation of the Holy Scriptures. Since the geocentric model is compatible with what is written in the Christian doctrines, it was considered as an absolute truth. During this period new discoveries would only be accepted if it does not contradict the Bible and if the evidences are too compelling that it cannot be disregarded by common sense. Nonetheless, no matter how perfect a normal science is -at first, anomalies would arise which produces doubt about normal science. There will be instances that run contrary to the accepted facts. At some point, these anomalies are treated as exceptions to the rule. However, as mentioned above, Okasha mentioned that one of the defining marks of science is the ability to construct theories which almost always generalizable. As anomalies builds up, the reliability of the theory weaken. New explanations are sought through experiments and observations. New theory is formulated which displace the previous theory. This process of change in accepted science is regarded as Scientific Revolution. One of the most prevalent examples of this shift in scientific belief is the Copernican Revolution. This revolution happened shortly after Nicholas Copernicus published his work â€Å"De Revolutionibus†. This work explicates the possibility that the sun is the center of the Solar System and not the earth. Copernicus tried to explain, at his best, the proof for this change in the model of the universe. Copernicus, himself, had been wary of publishing this discovery. It was not until he was sure about his explanation that he decided to publish his work. He received the first copy of his work before he died. Since Copernicus served as a canon in Frauenburg, Copernicus undertook extreme caution not to upset the church with his discover. Thus, although he had his discoveries in 1515, he decided not to announce his views publicly. Instead he tried to gather more evidence and revised his work. The book consists of six volumes. The first part explained the heliocentric model and the reason why this is so. According to Copernicus, he decided to try the sun-centered model due to the massive contradictions and inconsistencies that he found in the Ptolemaic model. The great number of anomalies involved calls for a new approach. Copernicus explained that the Earth is not fixed or is not stationary. He described the movement of the planets on their axis. This movement, now known as rotation, denotes the movement of the sun and the heavens from east to west. Copernicus also acknowledges that the planets revolve around the sun. He identified the number of days before the known planets can complete one revolution around the sun. Furthermore, the Copernican model also explained the changes in seasons and the advent of eclipses. In the later volumes, Copernicus tried to explain the movements of the other planets and he also explained the process on how he arrived to his conclusion. Since the book detailed explanation about the movement of the planets that are contrary to the literal meaning of the words in the Bible, it is expected that few people would consider and accept the idea. Removing Earth in the center of the universe seems to be a very strange idea that would overthrow the thought that God had made man as something special and that everything exists or was made for man. Okasha cited that the book was â€Å"banned in 1616 based on the assessment of the Catholic Church that the contents of the book contravene with those of the Holy Scriptures†. Copernicus had managed to gain popularity despite being criticized by the Catholic Church. Upon the invention of the telescope by Galileo Galilee, new evidences that support Copernicus findings arose. One of the critical observations made by Galileo was the presence and movement of sunspots. This discovery reiterated the fact that indeed heavenly bodies move in their axis or rotates. As Galileo published his discoveries, he gained negative response and was even accused of being a heretic. To this end, he wrote the `Letter to The Grand Duchess, Christina` with the purpose of clearing his name. In this letter he explained his current situation and his findings. Galileo identified his retractors to include those who judge his work without reading and understanding its contents. Galileo stated that those who are against him are the people â€Å"who has greater fondness to their opinions than truth†. As it appears, this seems to be the case since those that accused Galileo as a heretic did so despite overwhelming evidence from Copernicus and from the findings of Galileo himself that indeed hat is in the center of the Solar System. Galileo tried to clear his name by arguing that his retractors tried to show that his ideas are novel. It appears therefore that the action towards Galileo is a personal attack since previous authors or â€Å"confirmer† such as Copernicus was not mentioned during discussion of his work. He argued that Copernicus was not mentioned because his actions and findings were supported by the Catholic Church. To ensure that Copernicus book will be published, the preface was edited and it was explained that the book only reflects the hypothesis of a single man. Copernicus also addressed the pope in his book regarding the possibility that someone would â€Å"dare to condemn and censure this hypothesis †¦ upon the authority of some scriptural passage twisted to their purpose (Galilei and Finocchiaro, 1989)†. Being accused as a heretic, Galileo argued that his findings are not contradictory to the Bible. He explained that the words in the bible should not be taken literally. Galileo defended himself by making clear that the bible was made in a language and with the information that the masses or the common people can understand. For instance the higher mysteries such as the essence of God himself where described using human qualities and by referring to nature. Galileo elucidate the fact that the Bible did not necessarily discuss the heavens. The writers of the Bible only include those things that are necessary for people to live a â€Å"blessed life†. Galileo summed this argument by citing a statement he heard from an ecclesiastic â€Å"the intentions of the Holy Ghost is to teach us how one goes to heaven, not how the heaven goes†. In the end, the heliocentric model is now accepted as the legitimate model of the solar system. This fact had been confirmed by several sense-experience evidences. The process whereby science changes from normal to revolutionary and back to normal science again is known as the Scientific Revolution. The process is continuous since everything known as science is fallible. Although it is hard to think that there are other models of the solar system other than the heliocentric version, there had been several additions and further discoveries that might change the normal concept of the solar system. With respect to the idea of scientific revolutions, Okasha discussed the arguments put forward by Thomas Kuhn regarding the nature of scientific change. Kuhn coined the term paradigm to represent normal science. A paradigm is consists of â€Å"fundamental assumptions accepted by the scientific community and had solved theoretical problems with the aid of the fundamental assumptions (Okasha, 2002)†. The old paradigm are replaced ones anomalies, such as those mentioned above, exists continually. Scientist and thinkers would try to find a new way of explaining things by taking into account the corrections that must be made. The geocentric model had been accepted as true for more than 1000 years. Although there had been accounts and beliefs that the sun is at the center of the Solar System, they all remained as hypothetical assumptions. The work of Copernicus paved the way for an exposure of the anomalies while establishing a new paradigm. Galileo succeeded in convincing the scientific community, through the use of his invention, to accept the new paradigm. With the aid of Okasha’s book, one is able to get a better view of how the works of Copernicus and Galileo represent the concept of scientific revolutions. It also showed how resistance can affect the acceptance of new paradigm and how new sciences are produced. The process of revolution in the sciences does not take overnight but it takes decades or even centuries to develop.